For 4th grade elementary school

·         Make a sentence using the words below in the Simple Present and Simple Past structure!

1.     ( take a train )

Simple present      : _________________________

Simple past  : _____________________________

2.    ( ride a horse )

Simple present      : ______________________________

Simple past  : __________________________________

3.    ( sail in a boat )

Simple present      : ___________________________

Simple past  : ________________________________

4.    ( fly in a plane )

Simple present      : ____________________________

Simple past  : _________________________________

5.    ( catch a bus )

Simple present      : __________________________

Simple past  : _______________________________

·         Make a simple sentence using the adverbs below!

6.    ________________________________ ( quickly )

7.    ________________________________ ( slowly )

8.    ________________________________ ( carefully )

·         Choose the best choice!

9.    You must/must not pray before studying

10. You must/must not kick the ball to your teacher

11.  You must/must not turn off the TV after watching

12. The girl that/who/which wearing a blue dress is his girlfriend

13. This is my new Blackberry who/which my Mom gave me yesterday

·         Fill in the blank sentences!

14. Sinta  : what are you good at, Doni?

Doni   : _______________________ (painting )

15. Sarah : ______________________

Fanni  : ______________________ ( making a cake )

example of video for learning English

exercise material

I. Cross the best answer!

1.      Wednesday, Thursday, ....., Saturday

a. Monday                               b. Sunday                                c. Friday

2.      Police officer drives …..

a. truck                                                b. police car                             c. bus

3.      He is a.....                     

a. soldier

b. doctor

c. teacher

4.      Nurse works in.....

a. hospital                                b. post office                           c. shop

5.      What is this? This is.....               

a. arms                                     b. ears                                      c. nose

6.      I have two..... (paman)

a. sisters                                   b. fathers                                 c. uncles

7.      Postman works in.....

a. school                                  b. post office                           c. shop

8.       Butterfly is.....

a. running                                b. jumping                               c. flying

9.      He has a..... (ungu) hat.

a. red                                       b. white                                   c. purple

10.  A: Good morning everybody!

B: .....................

a. Good morning                     b. I’m fine                               c. Thank you

11.  How many stars are there?

a. seven

b. ten

c. twenty        

12.   I love this animal. This animal is.....

a. horse                                    b. fish                                      c. rabbit

13.  A: What is your phone number?

B: My phone number is six nine zero eight four three.

a. 690843                                b. 845216                                c. 740965

14.  Waiter works in.....

a. hospital                                b. restaurant                            c. post office

15.  Fire fighter drives a.....

a. fire truck                              b. car                                       c. bus

II. Match part A with part B!

       A                                                                                      B

1.     What’s your name?               (        )                            a. Doctor works in hospital

2.      How old are you?                 (        )                            b. My name is Mita

3.      Where does doctor work?     (        )                           c. Bus driver drives a bus

4.      Where do you live?               (        )                            d. I am 9 years old

5.      What does bus driver drive? (        )                             e. I live at jalan bukit asri

III. Fill in the blank!

1.      F_ _ E  _ IGHT _R                 (pemadam kebakaran)

2.      _ OSTM_ N                            (tukang pos)

3.      T_ A _HER                             (guru)

4.      PO_IC_MA_                          (polisi)

5.      _AIT_R                                   (pramusaji)

Language Change in Sociolinguistics

Causes of language change

1.     economy: Speakers tend to make their utterances as efficient and effective as possible to reach communicative goals. Purposeful speaking therefore involves a trade-off of costs and benefits.

§  the principle of least effort: Speakers especially use economy in their articulation, which tends to result in phonetic reduction of speech forms. See vowel reduction, cluster reduction, lenition, and elision. After some time a change may become widely accepted (it becomes a regular sound change) and may end up treated as a standard. For instance: going to [ˈɡoʊ.ɪntʊ] →gonna [ˈɡʌnə], with examples of both vowel reduction [ʊ] → [ə] and elision [nt] → [n], [oʊ.ɪ] → [ʌ].

2.     analogy - reducing word forms by likening different forms of the word to the root.

3.     language contact - the borrowing of words from foreign languages.

4.     the medium of communication

5.     cultural environment: Groups of speakers will reflect new places, situations, and objects in their language, whether they encounter different people there or not.

Types of language change

All languages change constantly, and do so in many and varied ways. Each generation notes how other generations "talk funny". Marcel Cohen details various types of language change under the overall headings of the external evolution and internal evolution of languages.

Lexical changes

The study of lexical changes forms the diachronic portion of the science of onomasiology.

The ongoing influx of new words in the English language (for example) helps make it a rich field for investigation into language change, despite the difficulty of defining precisely and accurately the vocabulary available to speakers of English. Throughout its history English has not only borrowed words from other languages but has re-combined and recycled them to create new meanings, whilst losing some old words.

Dictionary-writers try to keep track of the changes in languages by recording (and, ideally, dating) the appearance in a language of new words, or of new usages for existing words. By the same token, they may tag some words as "archaic" or "obsolete".

Phonetic and phonological changes

The concept of sound change covers both phonetic and phonological developments.

The sociolinguist William Labov recorded the change in pronunciation in a relatively short period in the American resort of Martha’s Vineyard and showed how this resulted from social tensions and processes.^[4] Even in the relatively short time that broadcast media have recorded their work, one can observe the difference between the pronunciation of the newsreaders of the 1940s and the 1950s and the pronunciation of today. The greater acceptance and fashionability of regional accents in media may also reflect a more democratic, less formal society — compare the widespread adoption of language policies.

The mapping and recording of small-scale phonological changes poses difficulties, especially as the practical technology of sound recording dates only from the 19th century. Written texts provide the main (indirect) evidence of how language sounds have changed over the centuries. But note Ferdinand de Saussure's work on postulating the existence and disappearance of laryngeals in Proto-Indo-European as an example of other methods of detecting/reconstructing sound-changes within historical linguistics.     

                                                             

Spelling changes

Standardization of spelling originated relatively recently.^{[citation needed]} Differences in spelling often catch the eye of a reader of a text from a previous century. The pre-print era had fewer literate people: languages lacked fixed systems of orthography, and the handwritten manuscripts that survive often show words spelled according to regional pronunciation and to personal preference.

Semantic changes

Semantic changes include

§  pejoration, in which a term acquires a negative association

§  amelioration, in which a term acquires a positive association

§  widening, in which a term acquires a broader meaning

§  narrowing, in which a term acquires a narrower meaning

Variation and Change: the cause behind language change is the variation of use in the areas of pronunciation and vocabulary.

Post-vocal |r| its spread and its status: In many parts of England and Wales, Standard English has lost the pronunciation post-vocal r. The loss of r began in the 17th century in the south-east of England and is still spreading to other areas. Accents with post-vocal |r| are called rhotict, and these accents are regarded as rural and uneducated. On the other hand in cities like New York, pronouncing the letter r is regarded as prestigious.

The spread of vernacular forms: sometimes a vernacular feature in some communities as a reflection of ethnic or social identity such as what happened in Martha's Vineyard Island. Labov's 1960 study showed: when the island was invaded by summer tourists, the island community of fishermen changed their pronunciation of some word vowels to older forms from the past as a reaction to the language of tourists.

How do language changes spread?

1- from group to group: changes spread like waves in different directions, and social factors such as age, gender, status and social group affect the rates and directions of change.

2- from style to style: from more formal to more casual, from one individual to another, from one social group to another, and from one word to another.

3- Lexical diffusion: the change from one word's vowel to another, the sound change begins in one word and later on in another, etc.

references

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variation_(linguistics)

Holmes, Janet (2001) 2nd edn An Introduction To Sociolinguistics.